3. I now come to the subject of ornament, in
which, more than in any other department, the orator
undoubtedly allows himself the greatest indulgence.
For a speaker wins but trifling praise if he does no
more than speak with correctness and lucidity; in
fact his speech seems rather to be free from blemish
than to have any positive merit.
[
2]
Even the untrained often possess the gift of invention, and no
great learning need be assumed for the satisfactory
arrangement of our matter, while if any more
recondite art is required, it is generally concealed,
since unconcealed it would cease to be an art, while
all these qualities are employed solely to serve the
interests of the actual case. On the other hand, by
the employment of skilful ornament the orator
[p. 213]
commends himself at the same time, and whereas his
other accomplishments appeal to the considered
judgment of the learned, this gift appeals to the
enthusiastic approval of the world at large, and the
speaker who possesses it fights not merely with
effective, but with flashing weapons.
[
3]
If in his defence
of Cornelius Cicero had confined himself merely to
instructing the judge and speaking in clear and idiomatic Latin without a thought beyond the interests
of his case, would he ever have compelled the Roman
people to proclaim their admiration not merely by
acclamation, but by thunders of applause? No, it
was the sublimity and splendour, the brilliance and
the weight of his eloquence that evoked such clamorous enthusiasm.
[
4]
Nor, again, would his words have
been greeted with such extraordinary approbation if
his speech had been like the ordinary speeches of
every day. In my opinion the audience did not know
what they were doing, their applause sprang neither
from their judgment nor their will; they were seized
with a kind of frenzy and, unconscious of the place in
which they stood, burst forth spontaneously into a
perfect ecstasy of delight.
[
5]
But rhetorical ornament contributes not a little to
the furtherance of our case as well. For when our
audience find it a pleasure to listen, their attention
and their readiness to believe what they hear are
both alike increased, while they are generally filled
with delight, and sometimes even transported by
admiration. The flash of the sword in itself strikes
something of terror to the eye, and we should be
less alarmed by the thunderbolt if we feared its
violence alone, and not its flash as well.
[
6]
Cicero
was right when, in one of his letters to Brutus, he
[p. 215]
wrote, “Eloquence which evokes no admiration is,
in my opinion, unworthy of the name.” Aristotle
1
likewise thinks that the excitement of admiration
should be one of our first aims.
But such ornament must, as I have already said,
2
be bold, manly and chaste, free from all effeminate
smoothness and the false hues derived from artificial
dyes, and must glow with health and vigour.
[
7]
So true
is this, that although, where ornament is concerned,
vice and virtue are never far apart, those who employ
a vicious style of embellishment disguise their vices
with the name of virtue. Therefore let none of our
decadents accuse me of being an enemy to those
who speak with grace and finish. I do not deny the
existence of such a virtue, I merely deny that they
possess it.
[
8]
Shall I regard a farm as a model of good
cultivation because its owner shows me lilies and
violets and anemones and fountains of living water
in place of rich crops and vines bowed beneath their
clusters? Shall I prefer the barren plane and myrtles
trimly clipped, to the fruitful olive and the elm that
weds the vine? No, let such luxuries delight the rich:
but where would their wealth be if they had nought
save these?
[
9]
Again, is beauty an object of no consideration in the planting of fruit trees? Certainly
not! For my trees must be planted in due order
and at fixed intervals. What fairer sight is there
than rows of trees planted in échelon
3 which present
straight lines to the eye from whatever angle they be
viewed? But it has an additional advantage, since
this form of plantation enables every tree to derive
an equal share of moisture from the soil.
[
10]
When the
tops of my olive trees rise too high, I lop them away,
with the result that their growth expands laterally
[p. 217]
in a manner that is at once more pleasing to the eye
and enables them to bear more fruit owing to the
increase in the number of branches. A horse whose
flanks are compact is not only better to look upon,
but swifter in speed. The athlete whose muscles
have been formed by exercise is a joy to the eye, but
he is also better fitted for the contests in which he
must engage.
[
11]
In fact true beauty and usefulness
always go hand in hand.
It does not, however, require any special ability to
discern the truth of this. It is more important to
note that such seemly ornament must be varied to
suit the nature of the material to which it is applied.
To begin with the primary classification of oratory,
the same form of ornament will not suit demonstrative, deliberative and forensic speeches. For the
oratory of display aims solely at delighting the
audience, and therefore develops all the resources of
eloquence and deploys all its ornament, since it seeks
not to steal its way into the mind nor to wrest the
victory from its opponent, but aims solely at honour
and glory.
[
12]
Consequently the orator, like the hawker
who displays his wares, will set forth before his
audience for their inspection, nay, almost for their
handling, all his most attractive reflexions, all the
brilliance that language and the charm that figures
can supply, together with all the magnificence of
metaphor and the elaborate art of composition that
is at his disposal. For his success concerns himself,
and not his cause.
[
13]
But when it is a question of facts,
and he is confronted by the hard realities of battle,
his last thought will be for his personal glory. Nay,
it is even unseemly to trouble overmuch about words
when the greatest interests are at stake. I would
[p. 219]
not assert that such themes afford no scope for
ornament, but such ornament as is employed must
be of a more severe, restrained and less obvious
character; above all, it must be adapted to the
matter in hand.
[
14]
For whereas in deliberative oratory
the senate demand a certain loftiness and the people
a certain impetuosity of eloquence, the public cases
of the courts and those involving capital punishment
demand a more exact style. On the other hand, in
private deliberations and lawsuits about trifling sums
of money (and there are not a few of these) it is more
appropriate to employ simple and apparently unstudied language. For we should be ashamed to
demand the repayment of a loan in rolling periods, or
to display poignant emotion in a case concerned with
water-droppings, or to work ourselves into a perspiration over the return of a slave to the vendor.
But I am wandering from the point.
[
15]
Since rhetorical ornament, like clearness, may
reside either in individual words or groups of words,
we must consider the requirements of both cases.
For although tile canon, that clearness mainly
requires propriety of language and ornament the
skilful use of metaphor, is perfectly sound, it is
desirable that we should realise that without propriety ornament is impossible.
[
16]
But as several words
may often have the same meaning (they are called
synonyms), some will be more distinguished, sublime, brilliant, attractive or euphonious than others.
For as those syllables are the most pleasing to the
ear which are composed of the more euphonious
letters, thus words composed of such syllables will
sound better than others, and the more vowel sounds
they contain the more attractive they will be to hear.
[p. 221]
The same principle governs the linking of word with
word; some arrangements will sound better than
others.
[
17]
But words require to be used in different
ways. For example, horrible things are best described by words that are actually harsh to the
ear. But as a general rule it may be laid down
that the best words, considered individually, are
those which are fullest or most agreeable in sound.
Again, elegant words are always to be preferred
to those which are coarse, and there is no room
for low words in the speech of a cultivated man.
[
18]
The choice of striking or sublime words will be
determined by the matter in hand; for a word that
in one context is magnificent may be turgid in
another, and words which are all too mean to
describe great things may be suitable enough when
applied to subjects of less importance. And just as
a mean word embedded in a brilliant passage
attracts special attention, like a spot on a bright
surface, so if our style be of a plain character,
sublime and brilliant words will seem incongruous
and tasteless excrescences on a flat surface.
[
19]
In
some cases instinct, and not reason, must supply
the touchstone, as, for example, in the line:
4
“A sow was slain to ratify their pacts.
”
Here the poet, by inventing the word
porca, succeeded in producing an elegant impression, whereas
if lie had used the masculine
porcuis, the very reverse
would have been the case. In some cases, however,
the incongruity is obvious enough. It was only the
other day that we laughed with good reason at the
poet who wrote:
“The youngling mice had gnawed
Within its chest the purple-bordered gown.
5”
[p. 223]
[
20]
On the other hand, we admire Virgil
6 when he
says:
“Oft hath the tiny mouse,” etc.
For here the epithet is appropriate and prevents
our expecting too much, while the use of the singular
instead of the plural, and the unusual monosyllabic
conclusion of the line, both add to the pleasing effect.
Horace
7 accordingly imitated Virgil in both these
points, when he wrote,
“The fruit shall be a paltry mouse.
”
[
21]
Again, our style need not always dwell on the
heights: at times it is desirable that it should sink.
For there are occasions when the very meanness of
the words employed adds force to what we say.
When Cicero, in his denunciation of Piso,
8 says,
“When your whole family rolls up in a dray,” do
you think that his use of the word
dray was accidental,
and was not designedly used to increase his audience's
contempt for the man he wished to bring to ruin?
The same is true when he says elsewhere, “You put
down your head and butt him.”
[
22]
This device may also
serve to carry off a jest, as in the passage of Cicero
where he talks of the “little sprat of a boy who slept
with his elder sister,”
9 or where he speaks of “Flavius,
who put out the eyes of crows,”
10 or, again, in the
pro Milone,11 cries, “Hi, there! Rufio!” and talks of
“Erucius Antoniaster.”
12 On the other hand, this
practice becomes more obtrusive when employed in
the schools, like the phrase that was so much
praised in my boyhood, “Give your father bread,” or
in the same declamation, “You feed even your dog.”
13
But such tricks do not always come off,
[
23]
especially in
[p. 225]
the schools, and often turn the laugh against the
speaker, particularly in the present day, when declamation has become so far removed from reality
and labours under such an extravagant fastidiousness
in the choice of words that it has excluded a good
half of the language from its vocabulary.
[
24]
Words are
proper, newly-coined or metaphorical. In
the case of
proper words there is a special dignity
conferred by antiquity, since old words, which not
everyone would think of using, give our style a
venerable and majestic air: this is a form of ornament
of which Virgil, with his perfect taste, has made
unique use.
[
25]
For his employment of words such as
olli,14 quianam,15 moerus,16 pone17 and
pellacia18 gives his
work that impressive air of antiquity which is so
attractive in pictures, but which no art of man can
counterfeit. But we must not overdo it, and such
words must not be dragged out from the deepest
darkness of the past.
Quaeso is old enough: what
need for us to say
quaiso?19 Oppido was still used by
my older contemporaries, but I fear that no one
would tolerate it now. At any rate,
antegerio,20 which
means the same, would certainly never be used by
anyone who was not possessed with a passion for
notoriety.
[
26]
What need have we of
acrumnosum?21 It
is surely enough to call a thing
horridum. Reor may
be tolerated,
autumo22 smacks of tragedy,
proles23 has
become a rarity, while
prosapia24 stamps the man
who uses it as lacking taste. Need I say more
Almost the whole language has changed.
[
27]
But there
are still some old words that are endeared to us by
[p. 227]
their antique sheen, while there are others that we
cannot avoid using occasionally, such, for example, as
nuncupare and
fari:25 there are yet others which it
requires some daring to use, but which may still be
employed so long as we avoid all appearance of that
affectation which Virgil
26 has derided so cleverly:
“Britain's Thucydides,
[28]
whose mad Attic brain
Loved word-amalgams like Corinthian bronze,
First made a horrid blend of words from Gaul,
Tau, al, min, sil and God knows how much else,
Then mixed them in a potion for his brother!
”
This was a certain Cimber who killed his brother,
[
29]
a fact which Cicero recorded in the words, “Cimber
has killed his brother German.”
27
The epigram against Sallust is scarcely less well
known:
“Crispus, you, too, Jugurtha's fall who told,
And filched such store of words from Cato old.
”
[
30]
It is a tiresome kind of affectation; any one can
practise it, and it is made all the worse by the fact
that the man who catches the infection will not
choose his words to suit his facts, but will drag in
irrelevant facts to provide an opportunity for the use
of such words.
The coining of new words is, as I stated in the
first book,
28 more permissible in Greek, for the
Greeks did not hesitate to coin nouns to represent
certain sounds and emotions, and in truth they were
taking no greater liberty than was taken by the
first men when they gave names to things.
[
31]
Our
own writers have ventured on a few attempts at
composition and derivation, but have not met with
[p. 229]
much success. I remember in my young days there
was a dispute between Pomponius and Seneca which
even found its way into the prefaces of their works,
as to whether
gradus eliminate29 was a phrase which
ought to have been allowed in tragedy. But the
ancients had no hesitation about using even
expectorate30
and, after all, it presents exactly the same formation
as
exanimat.
[
32]
Of the coining of words by expansion
and inflexion we have examples, such as the Ciceronian
31 beatitas and
beatitudo, forms which he feels to
be somewhat harsh, though he thinks they may be
softened by use. Derivatives may even be fashioned
from proper names, quite apart from ordinary words,
witness
Sullaturit32 in Cicero and
Fimbriatus and
Figulatus33 in Asinius.
[
33]
Many new words have been
coined in imitation of the Greeks,
34 more especially
by Verginius Flavus, some of which, such as
queens and
essentia, are regarded as unduly harsh. But I see no
reason why we should treat them with such contempt,
except, perhaps, that we are highly self-critical and
suffer in consequence from the poverty of our
language. Some new formations do, however, succeed
in establishing themselves.
[
34]
For words which now
are old, once were new, and there are some words in
use which are of quite recent origin, such as
reatus,35
invented by Messala, and
munerarius,36 invented by
Augustus. So, too, my own teachers still persisted
in banning the use of words, such as
piratica, musica
and
fabrica, while Cicero regards
favor and
urbanus
as but newly introduced into the language. For in
a letter to Brutus he says,
eum amorer et eum, ut hoc
[p. 231]
verbo utar, favored in consilium advocabo,37
[
35]
while to
Appius Pulcher he writes,
le hominem non solum sapientem, verum etiam, ut nunc loquimur, urbanum.38 He
also thinks that Terence was the first to use the
word
obsequium, while Caecilius asserts that Sisenna
was the first to use the phrase
albente caelo.39 Hortensius seems to have been the first to use
cervix in
the singular, since the ancients confined themselves
to the plural. We must not then be cowards, for I
cannot agree with Celsus when he forbids orators to
coin new words.
[
36]
For some words, as Cicero
40 says,
are native, that is to say, are used in their original
meaning, while others are derivative, that is to say,
formed from the native. Granted then that we
are not justified in coining entirely new words
having no resemblance to the words invented by
primitive man, I must still ask at what date we were
first forbidden to form derivatives and to modify
and compound words, processes which were undoubtedly permitted to later generations of mankind.
If, however,
[
37]
one of our inventions seems a little
risky, we must take certain measures in advance to
save it from censure, prefacing it by phrases such as
“so to speak,” “if I may say so,” “in a certain
sense,” or “if you will allow me to make use of such
a word.” The same practice may be followed in the
case of bold metaphors, and it is not too much to
say that almost anything can be said with safety
provided we show by the very fact of our anxiety
that the word or phrase in question is not due to an
error of judgment. The Greeks have a neat saying
on this subject, advising us to be the first to blame
our own hyperbole.
41
[
38]
The metaphorical use of words cannot be
[p. 233]
recommended except in connected discourse. Enough has
now been said on the subject of single words, which,
as I have pointed out elsewhere,
42 have no intrinsic
value of their own. On the other hand, there is no
word which is intrinsically ugly unless it be beneath
the dignity of the subject on which we have to
speak, excepting always such words as are nakedly
obscene.
[
39]
I would commend this remark to those
who do not think it necessary to avoid obscenity on
the ground that no word is indecent in itself and
that, if a thing
is revolting, its unpleasantness will
be realised clearly enough by whatever name it is
called. Accordingly, I shall content myself with
following the good old rules of Roman modesty and,
as I have already replied to such persons, shall
vindicate the cause of decency by saying no more on
this unpleasant subject.
[
40]
Let us now pass to consider connected discourse.
Its adornment may be effected, primarily, in two
ways; that is to say, we must consider first our ideal
of style, and secondly how we shall express this ideal
in actual words. The first essential is to realise
clearly what we wish to enhance or attenuate, to
express with vigour or calm, in luxuriant or austere
language, at length or with conciseness, with gentleness or asperity, magnificence or subtlety, gravity or
wit.
[
41]
The next essential is to decide by what kind of
metaphor, figures, reflexions, methods and arrangement we may best produce the effect which we
desire.
But, before I discuss ornament, I must first touch
upon its opposite, since the first of all virtues is the
avoidance of faults.
[
42]
Therefore we must not expect
any speech to be ornate that is not, in the first place,
[p. 235]
acceptable. An acceptable style is defined by
Cicero
43 as one which is not over-elegant: not that
our style does not require elegance and polish,
which are essential parts of ornament, but that excess
is always a vice.
[
43]
He desires, therefore, that our
words should have a certain weight about them, and
that our thoughts should be of a serious cast or, at
any rate, adapted to the opinions and character of
mankind. These points once secured, we may
proceed to employ those expressions which he
regards as conferring distinction on style, that is to
say, specially selected words and phrases, metaphor,
hyperbole, appropriate epithets, repetitions, synonyms and all such language as may suit our case and
provide an adequate representation of the facts.
[
44]
But since my first task is to point out the faults to
be avoided, I will begin by calling attention to the
fault known as
κακέμφατον, a term applied to the
employment of language to which perverted usage
has given an obscene meaning: take, for example,
phrases such as
ductare exercitus and patrare bellum,44
which were employed by Sallust in their old and
irreproachable sense, but, I regret to say, cause
amusement in certain quarters to-day. This, however, is not, in my opinion, the fault of the writer, but
of his readers;
[
45]
still it is one to be avoided, for we
have perverted the purity of language by our own
corruption, and there is no course left to us but to
give ground before the victorious advance of vice.
The same term is also applied in the cases where an
unfortunate collocation of words produces an obscene
suggestion. For example, in the phrase
cum hominibus notis loqui, unless
hominibus is placed between
cum
and
notis, we shall commit ourselves to a phrase
[p. 237]
which will require some apology, since the final letter
of the first syllable, which cannot be pronounced
without closing the lips, will force us either to pause
in a most unbecoming manner, or by assimilation to
the
n which follows
45 will produce a most objectionable suggestion.
[
46]
I might quote other collocations
of words which are liable to the same objection, but
to discuss them in detail would be to fall into that
very fault which I have just said should be avoided.
A similar offence against modesty may be caused by
the division of words, as, for example, by the use of
the nominative of
intercapedinis.46
[
47]
And it is not
merely in writing that this may occur, but you will
find, unless you exercise the greatest care, that there
are a number of persons who take pleasure in putting
an indecent interpretation on words, thinking, as
Ovid
47 says:
“that whatsoe'er is hid is best of all.
”
Nay, an obscene meaning may be extracted even
from words which are as far removed from indecency
as possible. Celsus, for example, detects an instance
of
κακέμφατον in the Virgilian
48 phrase:
incipiunt agitata tumescere;
but if this point of view be accepted, it will be risky
to say anything at all.
[
48]
Next to indecency of expression comes meanness,
styled
ταπείνωσις, when the grandeur or dignity of
anything is diminished by the words used, as in the
line:
“There is a rocky wart upon the mountain's brow.”49
The opposite fault, which is no less serious, consists
[p. 239]
in calling small things by extravagant names, though
such a practice is permissible when deliberately
designed to raise a laugh. Consequently we must
not call a parricide a scamp, nor a man who keeps a
harlot a villain, since the first epithet is too weak
and the second too strong.
[
49]
This fault will result in
making our language dull, or coarse, jejune, heavy,
unpleasing or slovenly, all of which faults are best
realised by reference to the virtues which are their
opposites, that is, point, polish, richness, liveliness,
charm, and finish.
[
50]
We must also avoid
μείωσις a term applied to
meagreness and inadequacy of expression, although
it is a fault which characterises an obscure style rather
than one which lacks ornament. But
meiosis may be
deliberately employed, and is then called a figure,
as also is
tautology, which means the repetition of a
word or phrase.
[
51]
The latter, though not avoided
with special care even by the best authors, may
sometimes be regarded as a fault: it is, in fact, a
blemish into which Cicero not infrequently falls
through indifference to such minor details: take, for
example, the following passage,
50 “Judges, this
judgment was not merely unlike a judgment.”
It is sometimes given another name,
ἐπανάληψις, under
which appellation it is ranked among figures, of
which I shall give examples when I come to the
discussion of stylistic virtues.
51
[
52]
A worse fault is
ὁμοείδεια, or sameness, a term
applied to a style which has no variety to relieve
its tedium, and which presents a uniform monotony
of hue. This is one of the surest signs of lack of art,
and produces a uniquely unpleasing effect, not merely
on the mind, but on the ear, on account of its
[p. 241]
sameness of thought, the uniformity of its figures, and
the monotony of its structure.
[
53]
We must also avoid
macrology, that is, the employment of more words
than are necessary, as, for instance, in the sentence
of Livy, “The ambassadors, having failed to obtain
peace, went back home, whence they had come.”
52
On the other hand,
periphrasis, which is akin to this
blemish, is regarded as a virtue. Another fault is
pleonasm, when we overload our style with a superfluity of words, as in the phrase, “I saw it with
my eyes,” where “I saw it” would have been
sufficient.
[
54]
Cicero passed a witty comment on a
fault of this kind in a declamation of Hirtius when
he said that a child had been carried for ten months
in his mother's womb. “Oh,” he said, “I suppose
other women carry them in their bags.”
53 Sometimes, however, the form of pleonasm, of which I
have just given an example, may have a pleasing
effect when employed for the sake of emphasis, as
in the Virgilian phrase
54:
“With mine own ears his voice I heard.
”
But whenever the addition is not deliberate,
[
55]
but
merely tame and redundant, it must be regarded as
a fault. There is also a fault entitled
περιεργία, which
I may perhaps translate by superfluous elaboration,
which differs from its corresponding virtue much as
fussiness differs from industry, and superstition from
religion. Finally, every word which neither helps
the sense nor the style may be regarded as faulty.
[
56]
Cacozelia, or perverse affectation, is a fault in every
kind of style: for it includes all that is turgid,
trivial, luscious, redundant, far-fetched or extravagant, while the same name is also applied to virtues
[p. 243]
carried to excess, when the mind loses its critical
sense and is misled by the false appearance of
beauty, the worst of all offences against style, since
other faults are due to carelessness, but this is
deliberate.
[
57]
This form of affectation, however, affects
style alone. For the employment of arguments which
might equally well be advanced by the other side,
or are foolish, inconsistent or superfluous, are all
faults of matter, whereas corruption of style is
revealed in the employment of improper or redundant
words, in obscurity of meaning, effeminacy of rhythm,
or in the childish search for similar or ambiguous
expressions.
[
58]
Further, it always involves insincerity,
even though all insincerity does not imply affectation.
For it consists in saying something in an unnatural
or unbecoming or superfluous manner. Style may,
however, be corrupted in precisely the same number
of ways that it may be adorned. But I have discussed this subject at greater length in another
work,
55 and have frequently called attention to it in
this, while I shall have occasion to mention it continually in the remaining books. For in dealing with
ornament, I shall occasionally speak of faults which
have to be avoided, but which are hard to distinguish
from virtues.
[
59]
To these blemishes may be added faulty arrangement or
ἀνοικονόμητον, the faulty use of figures or
ἀσχημάτιστον, and the faulty collocation of words
or
κακοσύνθετον. But, as I have already discussed
arrangement, I will confine myself to the consideration of figures and structure. There is also a fault
known as
Σαρδισμὸς, which consists in the indiscriminate use of several different dialects, as, for
instance, would result from mixing Doric, Ionic, and
[p. 245]
even Aeolic words with Attic.
[
60]
A similar fault is
found amongst ourselves, consisting in the indiscriminate mixture of grand words with mean, old
with new, and poetic with colloquial, the result
being a monstrous medley like that described by
Horace in the opening portion of his
Ars poetica,56
“If a painter choose
To place a man's head on a horse's neck,
”
and, be proceeds to say, should add other limbs from
different animals.
[
61]
The ornate is something that goes beyond what
is merely lucid and acceptable. It consists firstly
in forming a clear conception of what we wish to
say, secondly in giving this adequate expression,
and thirdly in lending it additional brilliance, a
process which may correctly be termed embellishment. Consequently we must place among ornaments
that
ἐνάργεια which I mentioned in the rules which
I laid down for the statement of facts,
57